To access my concept map for Socio-Psychological Issues the Immigrants in Australia encounter please click on the link:
http://www.mindmeister.com/maps/show_public/2871888
Sunday, October 28, 2007
Saturday, October 13, 2007
We Will Be Remembered For This
This is a trailer for a short film We Will be Remembered for This about a small group who visit Woomera to talk to the people who have been detained there as 'illegal immigrants' I have actually seen the film but it looks really interesting, if anyone has seen it and has any feedback feel free to comment!
Thursday, October 11, 2007
What Kinds of Socio-Psychological Issues are Encountered by Immigrants in Australia?
Australia is known for being a multi-cultural country. Immigrants have been arriving in Australia since the British colonised the country in 1788 (Orb, 2002; Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan & Babacan, 2004). Since 1945, around 6.5 million migrants have arrived in Australia and today, nearly one quarter of Australia’s people were born overseas (Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan & Babacan). Yet despite this reputation of being a multi-cultural country, immigrants continue to face a number of socio-psychological factors when coming to and settling in Australia. These factors can be internal and directly related to the move to a new country and establishing a life in a new culture, as well as external and related to the people and culture of the new country, such as prejudice and racism. Whilst immigration has contributed in beneficial ways to Australia’s economy, social make up and population, immigrants continue to battle these difficult issues in their attempt to create a new life for themselves and their families.
Who are Immigrants in Australia?
Australia’s population in 2003 was made up of approximately 74% Anglo-Celtic, 19% European and 4.5% Asian individuals (Immigration Museum, 2003). Immigrants come to Australia from all over the world in a variety of ways including through the migration program which includes a skill migration stream, a family migration stream, special eligibility migrants and through the humanitarian program which is for refugees and people in special humanitarian need and as asylum seekers (Immigration Museum). It is important to differentiate between refugees, asylum seekers and illegal immigrants. A refugee is someone who has gained refugee status under United Nations criteria, whereas an asylum seeker is someone who is seeking protection within a country of refuge but has not yet been granted refugee status, asylum seekers are not illegal immigrants although they are referred to as ‘unauthorised arrivals’ by the Australian Federal Government (Immigration Museum). Illegal immigrants are those who are staying within Australia without valid immigration documents, who have overstayed their visas. The majority of illegal immigrants in Australia are individuals from the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States (Immigration Museum).
The Migration Process – Assimilation and Acculturation
Sayeght and Lasry (1993) report three stages of the migration process. The first is the decision to move from the primary area based on needs or wants and the second is the physical move itself. The third stage is the absorption of the immigrant into the cultural and social frameworks of the new society. The psychosocial changes of the third stage include learning new roles, adaptation of primary group values and participation in the main spheres of the new social system outside of the primary group. Assimilation and acculturation are both part of the third stage of migration. Assimilation is conformity with a country in which one lives. Through assimilation one becomes part of the new society and culture. There are four ways an immigrant can react to living in a new society (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber 2007; Sayeght and Lasry). The first is assimilation – the full adoption of the immigrant into the new society. The second is integration – the immigrant adopts new attitudes and behaviours that are compatible with their primary culture. The third is marginalization where the immigrant does not feel as though they identify with either culture. The final is ethnocentrism where the immigrant rejects everything from the new society and culture and overvalues everything associated with the primary culture. Acculturation is similar to assimilation but rather a bi-directional process. In acculturation there is an exchange between two cultural groups and an adaptation of value systems on both sides. Jamil, Nassar-McMillan and Lamber (2007) identify four stages of loss, transition and adaptation in acculturation. The first is joy and relief, the second is post decisional regret, the third is stress with attending to psychological symptoms and fourth acceptance, adjustment and reorganization. Some of the psychological symptoms can include post traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber, 2007).
Prejudice, Stereotypes and Racism
Prejudice is a negative feeling towards a person because of their membership to a certain group (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Racism in turn is prejudiced attitudes and actions towards a particular race (Baumeister & Bushman). Immigrants in Australia can face both prejudice and racism which are contributed to through stereotypes – beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits (Baumeister & Bushman; Lui, 2004). Palmer (1996) reports that there was a strong link between the unemployment rate in Canada and opposition to immigration by Canadian citizens, which raises the possibility that people’s fears in relation to employment and economic stability may contribute to their attitudes towards immigration. He also reported that a number of Canadians felt that refugee claims tend to be fraudulent which places refugees into negative stereotypes and could, therefore lead to prejudice. Nikelly (1997) also discusses a xenophobic sentiment or perceived threat of immigrants to increases levels on unemployment, poverty, crime, welfare dependency and school drop out rates. When people perceive negative stereotypes to be true, whether it be through an individual or a group, prejudice often follows (Lui).
Isolation
The task of immigrating to another country and establishing a new life is a stressful process on its own. When combined with prejudice and racism which immigrants may face in their new country, it is possible to understand why many people struggle with the resettlement. Many immigrants prefer to maintain their culture and traditions by surrounding themselves with compatriots who will probably have a better understanding of the immigrant’s background and current situation (Nikelly, 1997). Unfortunately this can isolate immigrants more from their new community as well as possibly perpetuating stereotypes of different ethnic groups when they are viewed as living separately to mainstream citizens (Nikelly, 1997, Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).
The Self and Cognitive Dissonance
The self is an essential part of all human beings (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008) and is made up of three main parts. Self-knowledge involves information and beliefs about oneself, self-awareness, self-esteem and self-deception (Baumeister & Bushman). The Interpersonal or public self helps connect individuals socially and involves self-presentation, group membership, relationship partner, social roles and reputations (Baumeister & Bushman). Finally, the agent self is responsible for decision-making and self-control (Baumeister & Bushman). Part of the self is developed through ethnic identity – an individual uses knowledge about, participation with and attachment to their ethnic group to develop the self through a sense of belonging and commitment to the ethnic group as well as shared values and attitudes (Lieber, Chin, Nihira & Mink, 2001). Immigration can challenge an individual’s ethnic identity as there is often a disparity between the original culture and that of the adopted country (Lieber, Chin, Nihira & Mink). Individuals may be confronted with conflicting values, customs and behaviours between their two countries which could lead to confusion in developing ethnic identity and self. This conflict could also contribute to higher levels of physical and mental health issues faced by immigrants (Nikelly, 1997). Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that inconsistencies between behaviours and attitudes lead to psychological discomfort, which in turn leads to individuals rationalizing or adapting their behaviours or attitudes to create psychological harmony (Baumeister & Bushman). The conflict between original country values and attitudes and those of the new country could create cognitive dissonance for immigrants in Australia when, for example, they hold a particular attitude from their original country but feel pressured to behave in a contrary way due to attitudes or traditions in Australia.
Other Social Factors
Employment, socio-economic status and language barriers can all contribute to problems faced by immigrants in Australia, and effect their mental well-being (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber, 2007; Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan, 2004; Orb, 2002). Successful settlement of immigrants can involve establishing economic viability, social networks, housing and means of communicating with others (Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan). An inability to communicate proficiently in English in Australia often means an individual will be unable to access necessary services including physical and mental health care (Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan). Immigrants may have possessed higher qualifications and better jobs in their original country that they are unable to pursue in Australia due to language barriers which affects their socio-economic status even more, following the costly move to Australia. All of these factors may contribute to depression, anxiety and low self-esteem (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber; Nikelly, 1997).
Immigrants coming to Australia face a number of challenges, not only practicalities such as physically moving, financials costs and language barriers, but also socio-psychological factors. These factors stem from a variety of areas including prejudice and racism, isolation, conflict of ethnic identity, the self and cognitive dissonance and isolation. At the same time practical issues such as employment, language and socio-economic concerns can contribute to mental health problems for immigrants. On top of this, immigrants also have to deal with the psychological and emotional adjustment through assimilation and acculturation on arrival to their new country. As immigrants make up such a large percentage of Australia’s population and can contribute greatly to the nation, it is essential that government policies, organizational actions and individual attitudes and behaviours towards immigrants become a well-educated, positive format to create the best possible situation for all Australians.
Who are Immigrants in Australia?
Australia’s population in 2003 was made up of approximately 74% Anglo-Celtic, 19% European and 4.5% Asian individuals (Immigration Museum, 2003). Immigrants come to Australia from all over the world in a variety of ways including through the migration program which includes a skill migration stream, a family migration stream, special eligibility migrants and through the humanitarian program which is for refugees and people in special humanitarian need and as asylum seekers (Immigration Museum). It is important to differentiate between refugees, asylum seekers and illegal immigrants. A refugee is someone who has gained refugee status under United Nations criteria, whereas an asylum seeker is someone who is seeking protection within a country of refuge but has not yet been granted refugee status, asylum seekers are not illegal immigrants although they are referred to as ‘unauthorised arrivals’ by the Australian Federal Government (Immigration Museum). Illegal immigrants are those who are staying within Australia without valid immigration documents, who have overstayed their visas. The majority of illegal immigrants in Australia are individuals from the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States (Immigration Museum).
The Migration Process – Assimilation and Acculturation
Sayeght and Lasry (1993) report three stages of the migration process. The first is the decision to move from the primary area based on needs or wants and the second is the physical move itself. The third stage is the absorption of the immigrant into the cultural and social frameworks of the new society. The psychosocial changes of the third stage include learning new roles, adaptation of primary group values and participation in the main spheres of the new social system outside of the primary group. Assimilation and acculturation are both part of the third stage of migration. Assimilation is conformity with a country in which one lives. Through assimilation one becomes part of the new society and culture. There are four ways an immigrant can react to living in a new society (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber 2007; Sayeght and Lasry). The first is assimilation – the full adoption of the immigrant into the new society. The second is integration – the immigrant adopts new attitudes and behaviours that are compatible with their primary culture. The third is marginalization where the immigrant does not feel as though they identify with either culture. The final is ethnocentrism where the immigrant rejects everything from the new society and culture and overvalues everything associated with the primary culture. Acculturation is similar to assimilation but rather a bi-directional process. In acculturation there is an exchange between two cultural groups and an adaptation of value systems on both sides. Jamil, Nassar-McMillan and Lamber (2007) identify four stages of loss, transition and adaptation in acculturation. The first is joy and relief, the second is post decisional regret, the third is stress with attending to psychological symptoms and fourth acceptance, adjustment and reorganization. Some of the psychological symptoms can include post traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber, 2007).
Prejudice, Stereotypes and Racism
Prejudice is a negative feeling towards a person because of their membership to a certain group (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Racism in turn is prejudiced attitudes and actions towards a particular race (Baumeister & Bushman). Immigrants in Australia can face both prejudice and racism which are contributed to through stereotypes – beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits (Baumeister & Bushman; Lui, 2004). Palmer (1996) reports that there was a strong link between the unemployment rate in Canada and opposition to immigration by Canadian citizens, which raises the possibility that people’s fears in relation to employment and economic stability may contribute to their attitudes towards immigration. He also reported that a number of Canadians felt that refugee claims tend to be fraudulent which places refugees into negative stereotypes and could, therefore lead to prejudice. Nikelly (1997) also discusses a xenophobic sentiment or perceived threat of immigrants to increases levels on unemployment, poverty, crime, welfare dependency and school drop out rates. When people perceive negative stereotypes to be true, whether it be through an individual or a group, prejudice often follows (Lui).
Isolation
The task of immigrating to another country and establishing a new life is a stressful process on its own. When combined with prejudice and racism which immigrants may face in their new country, it is possible to understand why many people struggle with the resettlement. Many immigrants prefer to maintain their culture and traditions by surrounding themselves with compatriots who will probably have a better understanding of the immigrant’s background and current situation (Nikelly, 1997). Unfortunately this can isolate immigrants more from their new community as well as possibly perpetuating stereotypes of different ethnic groups when they are viewed as living separately to mainstream citizens (Nikelly, 1997, Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).
The Self and Cognitive Dissonance
The self is an essential part of all human beings (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008) and is made up of three main parts. Self-knowledge involves information and beliefs about oneself, self-awareness, self-esteem and self-deception (Baumeister & Bushman). The Interpersonal or public self helps connect individuals socially and involves self-presentation, group membership, relationship partner, social roles and reputations (Baumeister & Bushman). Finally, the agent self is responsible for decision-making and self-control (Baumeister & Bushman). Part of the self is developed through ethnic identity – an individual uses knowledge about, participation with and attachment to their ethnic group to develop the self through a sense of belonging and commitment to the ethnic group as well as shared values and attitudes (Lieber, Chin, Nihira & Mink, 2001). Immigration can challenge an individual’s ethnic identity as there is often a disparity between the original culture and that of the adopted country (Lieber, Chin, Nihira & Mink). Individuals may be confronted with conflicting values, customs and behaviours between their two countries which could lead to confusion in developing ethnic identity and self. This conflict could also contribute to higher levels of physical and mental health issues faced by immigrants (Nikelly, 1997). Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that inconsistencies between behaviours and attitudes lead to psychological discomfort, which in turn leads to individuals rationalizing or adapting their behaviours or attitudes to create psychological harmony (Baumeister & Bushman). The conflict between original country values and attitudes and those of the new country could create cognitive dissonance for immigrants in Australia when, for example, they hold a particular attitude from their original country but feel pressured to behave in a contrary way due to attitudes or traditions in Australia.
Other Social Factors
Employment, socio-economic status and language barriers can all contribute to problems faced by immigrants in Australia, and effect their mental well-being (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber, 2007; Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan, 2004; Orb, 2002). Successful settlement of immigrants can involve establishing economic viability, social networks, housing and means of communicating with others (Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan). An inability to communicate proficiently in English in Australia often means an individual will be unable to access necessary services including physical and mental health care (Khakbaz, Gopalkrishnan, & Babacan). Immigrants may have possessed higher qualifications and better jobs in their original country that they are unable to pursue in Australia due to language barriers which affects their socio-economic status even more, following the costly move to Australia. All of these factors may contribute to depression, anxiety and low self-esteem (Jamil, Nassar-McMillan, & Lamber; Nikelly, 1997).
Immigrants coming to Australia face a number of challenges, not only practicalities such as physically moving, financials costs and language barriers, but also socio-psychological factors. These factors stem from a variety of areas including prejudice and racism, isolation, conflict of ethnic identity, the self and cognitive dissonance and isolation. At the same time practical issues such as employment, language and socio-economic concerns can contribute to mental health problems for immigrants. On top of this, immigrants also have to deal with the psychological and emotional adjustment through assimilation and acculturation on arrival to their new country. As immigrants make up such a large percentage of Australia’s population and can contribute greatly to the nation, it is essential that government policies, organizational actions and individual attitudes and behaviours towards immigrants become a well-educated, positive format to create the best possible situation for all Australians.
REFERENCES
Immigration Museum. (2003). Frequently Asked Questions about Refugees. Retrieved 15 October, 2007, from http://immigration.museum.vic.gov.au/pdf/IMM001.pdf
Jamil, H., Nassar-McMillan, S. C., Lamber, R. G. (2007). Immigration and attendant psychological sequelae: A comparison of three waves of Iraqi immigrants. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77 (2), 199 – 205
Khakbaz, M., Gopalkrishnan, N., & Babacan, H. (2004). Sustaining the regions: Issues of international migration, settlement and ethnic diversity. Paper presented at the 12th Biennial Conference of Population and Society: Issues, Research, Policy, Canberra, Australia. Retrieved October 15, 2007 from http://www.apa.org.au/upload/2004-4C_Khakbaz.pdf
Lieber, E., Chin, D., Nihira, K., & Mink, I. R. (2001). Holding on and letting go: Identity and acculturation among Chinese immigrants. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7 (3), 247 – 261
Liu, S. (2004). An examination of the social categorization of Chinese ethnic groups and its influence on intergroup relations in Australia. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New Orleans Sheraton, New Orleans. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112466_index.html
Nikelly, A. G. (1997). Cultural Babel: The challenge of immigrants to the helping professions. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 3 (4), 221 – 233
Orb, A. (2002). Health care needs of elderly migrants from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds: A review of the literature. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from: http://cra.curtin.edu.au/publicationsInformation/Health%20Care%20needs%20of%20elderly%20migrants%20literature%20review%20ORB.pdf
Palmer, D. L. (1996). Determinants of Canadian attitudes toward immigration: More than just racism? Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 28 (3), 180 – 192
Pettigrew, T. F. & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90 (5), 751 – 783
Sayegh, L. & Lasry, J. (1993). Immigrants’ adaptation in Canada: Assimilation, acculturation, and orthogonal cultural identification. Canadian Psychology, 34 (1), 98 – 109
Appendix A - Concept Map
http://119076.blogspot.com/2007/10/blog-2-appendix-concept-map.htmlAppendix B – Self Evaluation
1. Theory
I feel as though I have a thorough understanding of the theoretical aspects regarding socio-psychological factors affecting Immigrants in Australia. I did find it slightly difficult to restrain myself to socio-psychological factors instead of including issues that immigrants face in Australia but aren’t necessarily directly linked to psychological factors. I’m sure I could have linked all issues back in to psychological factors eventually, but I would’ve needed a much larger word count.
2. Research
I found it quite difficult to find articles related specifically to immigrants in Australia. There are many international articles such as those regarding immigrants in the UK and USA, but not so many in Australia. I also found it difficult to find articles related to the socio-psychological factors. Many of the articles that I found were related to government policy, employment and education and economic factors. I do feel as though I have managed to find a good number of useful articles though.
Readability Analysis: Word Count 1, 410; passive sentences 10%; Flesch Reading Ease 16.9 – I’m not sure why the reading ease is so low although I do wonder whether it is due in part to the use of psychological phrases such as cognitive dissonance etc. Flesch –Kincaid grade level 12.0. Gunning-Fog index 26 – although it does say that ideally scores should be between 11 and 15 it does say that anything over 22 is considered post-graduate level, which I am quite happy about!
I also noticed that when I used the Microsoft Word readability analysis it gave me a different word count to when I simply did a word count of my essay – it makes me wonder how accurate it is.
I also noticed that when I used the Microsoft Word readability analysis it gave me a different word count to when I simply did a word count of my essay – it makes me wonder how accurate it is.
I feel as my APA referencing style is good, based on constructive criticism from previous assignments. However, with my referencing I have used a couple of sources that aren’t typical journals so I am not completely certain my APA referencing style is perfect.
I’ve used the concept map to display the issues that I believe immigrants in Australia face. The concept map has been good to use because it allows you to break down the causes into sub-variables and it just seems to make it a lot clearer.
I used headings in my blog to make it easier to read and also to help me stay focused on the topic of the paragraph.
I found it harder to participate in online engagement this semester as I had a much heavier work load as well as external commitments, work and sport etc.
Once again I ran out of time to be able to post a draft earlier on and receive feedback, although I did feel as though I received more comments from other students in relation to my posts.
I didn’t manage to plan dates to post discussions/comments as I mentioned in my previous blog evaluation. I did make the effort to read more of other students’ blogs this time and I made a few comments, although some topics I didn’t feel as though I had adequate background knowledge to contribute further to their discussions.
My blogs were:
http://119076.blogspot.com/2007/10/we-will-be-remembered-for-this.html - Trailer for an Australian film about ‘illegal immigrants’
http://119076.blogspot.com/2007/10/we-will-be-remembered-for-this.html - Trailer for an Australian film about ‘illegal immigrants’
http://119076.blogspot.com/2007/10/aussie-citizenship-test.html - A mock Australian Citizenship Test
Polls: http://119076.blogspot.com/
Where do you think the highest number of illegal immigrants in Australia is from?
Do you think immigrants in Australia should have to have a high level of English before gaining citizengship?
The following links are for other student’s blogs that I made contributions to:
http://ellensocialblog.blogspot.com/2007/10/getting-started.html - comment
http://ellensocialblog.blogspot.com/2007/10/getting-started.html - comment
http://ruthssocialpsychblog.blogspot.com/. - comment & 2 poll votes
http://sammyt1.blogspot.com/ - poll vote
Aussie Citizenship Test
Just a bit of a funny take on my topic of social psychological issues facing immigrants in Australia today, you've probably all got it in a fwd but I think it's a good one... Any thoughts on the real Australian citizenship test?
1. Do you understand the meaning, but are unable to explain the origin of, the term "died in the arse"
2. What is a bloody little beauty?
3. Are these terms related: chuck a sickie; chuck a spaz; chuck a U-ey?
4. Explain the following passage: "In the arvo last Chrissy the relos rocked up for a barbie, some bevvies and a few snags. After a bit of a Bex and a lie down we opened the pressies, scoffed all the chockies, bickies and lollies. Then we drained a few tinnies and Mum did her block after Dad and Steve had a barney and a bit of biffo."
5. Macca, Chooka and Wanger are driving to Surfers in their Torana. If they are travelling at 100 km/h while listening to Barnsey, Farnsey and Acca Dacca, how many slabs will each person on average consume between flashing a brown eye and having a slash?
6. Complete the following sentences:
a) "If the van's rockin' don't bother .......
b) You're going home in the back of a .........
c) Fair crack of the...........
7. I've had a gutful and I can't be fagged. Discuss
8. Have you ever been on the giving or receiving end of a wedgie?
9. Do you have a friend or relative who has a car in their front yard "up on blocks"? Is his name Bruce and does he have a wife called Cheryl?
10. Does your family regularly eat a dish involving mincemeat, cabbage, curry powder and a packet of chicken noodle soup called either chow mein, chop suey or kai see ming?
11. What are the ingredients in a rissole?
12. Demonstrate the correct procedure for eating a Tim Tam.
13. Do you have an Aunty Irene who smokes 30 cigarettes a day and sounds like a bloke?
14. In any two-hour period have you ever eaten three-bean salad, a chop and two serves of pav washed down with someone else's beer that has been flogged from a bath full of ice?
15. When you go to a bring- your-own-meat barbie can you eat other people's meat or are you only allowed to eat your own?
16. What purple root vegetable beginning with the letter "b" is required by law to be included in a hamburger with the lot?
17. Do you own or have you ever owned a lawn mower, a pair of thongs, an Esky or Ugg boots?
18. Is it possible to "prang a car" while doing "circle work"?
19. Who would you like to crack on to?
20. Who is the most Australian: Kevin "Bloody" Wilson, John "True Blue" Williamson, Kylie Minogue or Warnie?
21. Is there someone you are only mates with because they own a trailer or have a pool?
22. What does sinkin piss at a mate’s joint and gettin paralised mean?
You may copy your mate’s answers, please submit this back to me when you have had a fair old crack.
The pass rate is 45%
1. Do you understand the meaning, but are unable to explain the origin of, the term "died in the arse"
2. What is a bloody little beauty?
3. Are these terms related: chuck a sickie; chuck a spaz; chuck a U-ey?
4. Explain the following passage: "In the arvo last Chrissy the relos rocked up for a barbie, some bevvies and a few snags. After a bit of a Bex and a lie down we opened the pressies, scoffed all the chockies, bickies and lollies. Then we drained a few tinnies and Mum did her block after Dad and Steve had a barney and a bit of biffo."
5. Macca, Chooka and Wanger are driving to Surfers in their Torana. If they are travelling at 100 km/h while listening to Barnsey, Farnsey and Acca Dacca, how many slabs will each person on average consume between flashing a brown eye and having a slash?
6. Complete the following sentences:
a) "If the van's rockin' don't bother .......
b) You're going home in the back of a .........
c) Fair crack of the...........
7. I've had a gutful and I can't be fagged. Discuss
8. Have you ever been on the giving or receiving end of a wedgie?
9. Do you have a friend or relative who has a car in their front yard "up on blocks"? Is his name Bruce and does he have a wife called Cheryl?
10. Does your family regularly eat a dish involving mincemeat, cabbage, curry powder and a packet of chicken noodle soup called either chow mein, chop suey or kai see ming?
11. What are the ingredients in a rissole?
12. Demonstrate the correct procedure for eating a Tim Tam.
13. Do you have an Aunty Irene who smokes 30 cigarettes a day and sounds like a bloke?
14. In any two-hour period have you ever eaten three-bean salad, a chop and two serves of pav washed down with someone else's beer that has been flogged from a bath full of ice?
15. When you go to a bring- your-own-meat barbie can you eat other people's meat or are you only allowed to eat your own?
16. What purple root vegetable beginning with the letter "b" is required by law to be included in a hamburger with the lot?
17. Do you own or have you ever owned a lawn mower, a pair of thongs, an Esky or Ugg boots?
18. Is it possible to "prang a car" while doing "circle work"?
19. Who would you like to crack on to?
20. Who is the most Australian: Kevin "Bloody" Wilson, John "True Blue" Williamson, Kylie Minogue or Warnie?
21. Is there someone you are only mates with because they own a trailer or have a pool?
22. What does sinkin piss at a mate’s joint and gettin paralised mean?
You may copy your mate’s answers, please submit this back to me when you have had a fair old crack.
The pass rate is 45%
Monday, September 3, 2007
Appendix A
Concept Map of Variables that Contribute to Genocide
(Please click on the map to view a larger version)
(Please click on the map to view a larger version)
Appendix B
Self Evaluation
1. Theory
I have an understanding of the theoretical aspects that cover the contributing factors that I’ve covered in this essay. However, I’m not sure whether or not I’ve adequately displayed this understanding. I think I’ve definitely used key terms from the literature, but I found it hard to be able to cover everything in the word limit.
2. Research
I feel as though I have done substantial research for this essay although I would have liked (mostly out of personal interest) to have done more in depth research. I came up against the usual time restraints and having to limit myself to research to answer the question.
I think I have a good understanding of the main research findings although I also would have liked to have been able to discuss some research results on some of the key concepts like deindividuation and its effect on aggression, social influence etc.
3. Written Expression
Readability Analysis: Word Count 1, 512; passive sentences 33%; Flesch Reading Ease 33.1 – I will need to work on improving this in my second blog as it’s a bit below the minimum aim of 42; Flesch –Kincaid grade level 12.0.
I feel as though I have improved my APA style based on constructive criticism from previous assignments. However, with my referencing I have used a couple of sources that aren’t typical journals so I am not completely certain my APA referencing style is perfect.
I’ve used the concept map to display the factors that I believe contribute to genocide. The concept map has been good to use because it allows you to break down the causes into sub-variables and it just seems to make it a lot clearer. I didn’t use any tables or images for this essay, there were a few figures that I reported but there weren’t a large number of figures and a table would have been excessive.
I used headings in my blog to make it easier to read and also to help me stay focused on the topic of the paragraph. I stuck to basic APA formatting, although it hasn’t transferred from Word to Blogger, I think it is still clear and easy to read.
4. Online engagement
I was definitely keen to build up my online engagement in the beginning of the semester, especially because I found the topics so interesting. I made a few comments to other people’s blogs as well as creating a couple of discussions myself.
I would have liked to have done more research and posted that or worked on my draft earlier in the semester and been able to post those up, but I just seemed to run out of time with other assignments and commitments.
Next time I would like to plan dates to post discussions/comments so that I have some steps to aim towards rather than it being such a general idea. I’d also like to make the time to read more people’s blogs so I can get involved in more discussions.
My blogs were:
Test Blog
Genocide (2 comments from other students)
Two Interesting Movies
As well as comments on other student's blogs.
1. Theory
I have an understanding of the theoretical aspects that cover the contributing factors that I’ve covered in this essay. However, I’m not sure whether or not I’ve adequately displayed this understanding. I think I’ve definitely used key terms from the literature, but I found it hard to be able to cover everything in the word limit.
2. Research
I feel as though I have done substantial research for this essay although I would have liked (mostly out of personal interest) to have done more in depth research. I came up against the usual time restraints and having to limit myself to research to answer the question.
I think I have a good understanding of the main research findings although I also would have liked to have been able to discuss some research results on some of the key concepts like deindividuation and its effect on aggression, social influence etc.
3. Written Expression
Readability Analysis: Word Count 1, 512; passive sentences 33%; Flesch Reading Ease 33.1 – I will need to work on improving this in my second blog as it’s a bit below the minimum aim of 42; Flesch –Kincaid grade level 12.0.
I feel as though I have improved my APA style based on constructive criticism from previous assignments. However, with my referencing I have used a couple of sources that aren’t typical journals so I am not completely certain my APA referencing style is perfect.
I’ve used the concept map to display the factors that I believe contribute to genocide. The concept map has been good to use because it allows you to break down the causes into sub-variables and it just seems to make it a lot clearer. I didn’t use any tables or images for this essay, there were a few figures that I reported but there weren’t a large number of figures and a table would have been excessive.
I used headings in my blog to make it easier to read and also to help me stay focused on the topic of the paragraph. I stuck to basic APA formatting, although it hasn’t transferred from Word to Blogger, I think it is still clear and easy to read.
4. Online engagement
I was definitely keen to build up my online engagement in the beginning of the semester, especially because I found the topics so interesting. I made a few comments to other people’s blogs as well as creating a couple of discussions myself.
I would have liked to have done more research and posted that or worked on my draft earlier in the semester and been able to post those up, but I just seemed to run out of time with other assignments and commitments.
Next time I would like to plan dates to post discussions/comments so that I have some steps to aim towards rather than it being such a general idea. I’d also like to make the time to read more people’s blogs so I can get involved in more discussions.
My blogs were:
Test Blog
Genocide (2 comments from other students)
Two Interesting Movies
As well as comments on other student's blogs.
Sunday, July 29, 2007
Two Interesting Movies
Here are 2 movies of true stories related to genocide, thought some of you might be interested.
The first, Hotel Rwanda tells the story of Paul Rusesabagina who sheltered hundreds of people in the hotel where he worked. I found it especially frustrating watching the bit where all the white westerners were evacuated, and how the UN force was a Peace Keeping contingent which meant they had no powers to fire weapons or engage in combat unless they were fired upon... which also meant the UN peacekeepers were forced to stand by and just watch Rwandan's dies. In one part of the moview when Paul asks a photojournalist how the rest of the world cannot intervene, Joaquin Phoenix's character says "...they'll say 'Oh my God, it's horrible' and then they go on eating their dinners..." which I think sums up pretty neatly how we do all react when faced with things like that. Unless we're affected directly, we tend to be upset and angry for about 5 minutes and then go back to our regular lives.
The 2nd movie is The Last King of Scotland which doesn't focus so much on genocide but is the story of a Scottish doctor who's chosen as the personal doctor for the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. I found it fascinating watching the difference between the charasmatic, popular Amin and the paranoid, ruthelss Amin who was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ugandans. Another example of Western governments knowing what was happening (the British this time) and choosing to pretty much ignore it. There are some pretty graphic scenes towards the end of the movie...
The first, Hotel Rwanda tells the story of Paul Rusesabagina who sheltered hundreds of people in the hotel where he worked. I found it especially frustrating watching the bit where all the white westerners were evacuated, and how the UN force was a Peace Keeping contingent which meant they had no powers to fire weapons or engage in combat unless they were fired upon... which also meant the UN peacekeepers were forced to stand by and just watch Rwandan's dies. In one part of the moview when Paul asks a photojournalist how the rest of the world cannot intervene, Joaquin Phoenix's character says "...they'll say 'Oh my God, it's horrible' and then they go on eating their dinners..." which I think sums up pretty neatly how we do all react when faced with things like that. Unless we're affected directly, we tend to be upset and angry for about 5 minutes and then go back to our regular lives.
The 2nd movie is The Last King of Scotland which doesn't focus so much on genocide but is the story of a Scottish doctor who's chosen as the personal doctor for the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. I found it fascinating watching the difference between the charasmatic, popular Amin and the paranoid, ruthelss Amin who was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ugandans. Another example of Western governments knowing what was happening (the British this time) and choosing to pretty much ignore it. There are some pretty graphic scenes towards the end of the movie...
Never Again: Variables That Lead To Genocide
Abstract: Genocide is a horrific concept that has continued to occur throughout history, despite the world declaring ‘never again’. There are a number of variables that can combine to lead to genocide, including community division, stereotyping, prejudices, volatile situations, social influence, deindividuation, propaganda, rationalisation of hatred and violence, aggression and international intervention. From a humanitarian viewpoint it is essential that the world learns from past genocides such as Rwanda, and prevent this from occurring again.
Throughout history the world has been horrified by genocides: the Armenian Genocide, the Holocaust and genocides in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur. Following the Holocaust, members of the United Nations signed the Genocide Convention designed to prevent future genocides and the world declared 'never again' (Sternberg, 2003; Power, 1998). Yet it did happen again, more than once. It has been estimated that during the 20th century approximately 188 million people were killed by war, genocide, tyranny and manmade famine (World Watch Institute, 2007). This leads to the questions 'why do genocides occur?' 'What factors contribute to such a situation?' There is not one simple answer, rather a number of factors that can combine to create genocide. Through examining the social psychological variables the world can gain a better understanding of how genocides arise, and hopefully develop methods to prevent future atrocities from ever occurring. The mass killings in Rwanda in 1994 are one example of the complexity of genocide. In 100 days approximately 800 000 people were killed, most of which were the Tutsi minority, although many of the Hutu majority also died (Smith, 1998; Stansell, 2007; Sternberg). That this was allowed to happen, both by the Rwandans themselves, and the international community, attest to the fact that there is no simple answer as to how genocide can occur. The Rwandan genocide was not a simple case of tribal warfare (Smith). A concept map of these variables is presented in Appendix A.
Community Division: Stereotyping and Prejudices
Stereotyping and the forming of prejudices can be viewed as a normal part of learning and human development (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; McCauley, Sitt & Segal, 1980). It doesn’t always lead to violence or war, however in its extreme it is a variable that can contribute to genocide. One of the basic forms of stereotyping and prejudice is ethnic stereotyping which can include ethnocentrism which involves stereotype characterizations that not only describe, but evaluate an ethnic group (McCauley, Sitt & Segal). These evaluations are based on judging groups according to their differences to the initial group’s norms (McCauley, Sitt & Segal). In the case of the Rwandan genocide there was a clear distinction between and prejudice amongst, two tribal groups – the Hutu and Tutsi people (Feil, 1998; Smith, 1998; Stansell, 2007). The mistrust and fear that breeds when stereotyping and prejudices are rampant only serve to widen the gap between ethnic groups and worsen tensions (Mamdami, 2007; Reeves, 2007; Rummel, 1995). Stereotyping can lead to discrimination – an in-group (the group one belongs to) versus out-group (the group others belong to) mentality (Baumeister & Bushman).
A Volatile Situation
Genocides do not occur in peaceful, prosperous nations, rather in those that are troubled with civil war or rebellion and often economic difficulties (Mamdami, 2007; Rummel, 1995). Rummel argues that regimes based on a totalitarian dimension are much more likely to lead to war and genocide than democratic regimes.
Feil (1998) chronicled part of the troubled history between the two Rwandan tribal groups. Rwanda, or Ruanda-Urundi as it was then known, was made a League of Nations Protectorate, governed by Belgium in 1919, and in 1926 Belgium introduced ethnic identification cards that differentiated between the tribal groups. In 1959 the Tutsi king died, resulting in a Hutu rise and the killings of hundreds of Tutsi people. In 1962 Ruanda-Urundi became Rwanda as it gained its independence and the Hutu majority government came to power, bringing about more Tutsi killings. In 1963 and 1967 the killings continued and in 1973 the Tutsi people were restricted to 9% of available public service jobs whilst also being purged from universities and other institutes. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) was formed in 1986 and in 1989 world market coffee prices collapsed, destroying the Rwandan economy and increasing tensions between the two groups. In 1990 the RPF invaded Rwanda, were pushed back to the border through French and Zarian assistance and hundreds of Tutsi civilians were killed as reprisal for the attack. From 1990 to 1994 various cease-fire agreements were established and continuously broken. The Rwandan army began equipping and training militias and paramilitary organisations during 1990 and 1991. In 1992 Egypt and South Africa signed $6 million and $5.9 million agreements respectively, with the Rwandan Government Forces (RGF) for small arms, mortars, rockets, grenades and mines. In 1993 UN peacekeeping forces were approved and deployed but in October of the same year a coup d’etat occurred causing hundreds of refugees to flee the country. On April 6, 1994 the Rwandan and Brundi presidents were assassinated and the country descended into chaos.
Social Influence and Deindividuation
Social influence can play a large role in genocide through pressure for individuals to conform to a larger group’s beliefs and actions, even to the extent that civilians will participate in killings themselves (Feil, 1998; Smith, 1998; Sternberg, 2003). Social influence has a historical perspective in that humans have been more likely to survive if they were part of a group rather than on their own (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Normative influence can be seen in genocide when individuals conform not only to be accepted as part of a group but to avoid reprisals and negative consequences for themselves (Reeves, 2007; Smith; Sternberg). During the Rwandan genocide Hutu extremist not only killed Tutsi people, but also moderate Hutu who were, wether accurately or not, portrayed as associating and collaborating with the Tutsi, or who failed to clearly align themselves with the majority (Sternberg; Feil).
Sternberg (2003) lists strategies that governments and military groups use to achieve their means during a genocide: intensive, extensive propaganda – often through false stories to generate hatred; infusion of hatred and its resultants as an integral and necessary part of societal mores – the normalising of feelings of hatred; emphasis on indoctrination of youngsters in school and through extracurricular groups; the importance of obeying orders; diffusion of responsibility – no one is left feeling solely responsible, rather they are small parts of a larger machine; calls to and rewards for action; threats and punishment for non-compliance; public examples of compliance and non-compliance; system of informers to weed out fifth-columnists – usually secret police; and the creation of an authoritarian cult of a leader.
The diffusion of responsibility is linked to deindividuation – individuals lose their sense of individuality and become part of the larger group – they develop the mob mentality (Baumeister & Bushman)
Communication: Propaganda and Rationalisation
Much of this social influence can occur through persuasion – propaganda and the use of fear – minority groups are demonised and an ‘us or them’ style message is broadcast – one’s group must destroy their enemies before they are destroyed themselves (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; Feil, 1998; Reeves, 2007). In Rwanda, radio broadcasts fuelled hatred and the Tutsi were often referred to as cockroaches and vipers (Feil; Smith, 1998). Hutus were instructed to ‘fill the rivers of the country with the Tutsi dead’ (Feil, p5) and it was claimed that Tutsis were planning on slaughtering innocent Hutu (Smith). In Germany, during the Holocaust the Jews were demonised through movies, broadcasts, books and posters as being greedy, cunning and dangerous (Herf, 2006; Varvin, 2005; Weindling, 1997). Through propaganda individuals are taught that hatred towards the target group is justified and that they in fact have a responsibility to act on these feelings (Sternberg, 2003).
Aggression
Genocide involves both hostile, or impulsive, aggression and instrumental, or premeditated aggression (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). As well as active aggression – direct behaviour that harms others – passive aggression can also be involved, where people are harmed through the lack of behaviour (Baumeister & Bushman). Genocide often not only involves the torture and murder of people but also the withholding of vital supplies including food, water, medication, shelter and basic safety and protection (Mamdami, 2007; Reeves, 2007; Sternberg, 2003). Whether governments are openly undertaking the genocide killings or not, the militias are usually state-sponsored, with both financial, manpower and weapons assistance being provided (Mamdami; Reeves; Rummel, 1995)
Peters (2007) argues that genocide is ‘essentially Darwinian’ in that throughout history tribes or groups have sought to eliminate other groups for their own safety – survival of the fittest.
International Intervention
International intervention can be examined from two different angles in regards to genocide. There is the intervention that sustains regimes and militia through support – financial, politically or through the supply of manpower, weapons or training. China has been one of the Darfur government’s main suppliers of weapons for the last ten years (Reeves, 2007). Reeves also argues that China has indicated that they will prevent effective action by the United Nations. On the other hand, there is the lack of international intervention that fails to prevent genocide from occurring. This lack of intervention can arise for different reasons. Nations may be indifferent in regards to the plight of a group of people other than their own citizens if it does not affect them. President Clinton stated that the United States of America would not intervene in the Rwandan crisis as it did not pose a threat to American interests (Barker, 2004). Not only did the USA not intervene adequately in the genocide, they withdrew UN Peacekeeping troops who were already stationed in Rwanda. Nations may want to intervene but be restricted by bureaucratic obstacles. There are strict laws that are designed to regulate international intervention both by individual countries and groups such as the United Nations (Barker; Feil, 1998; Reeves). This was highlighted in Rwanda with Major General Dallaire unable to intervene in the situation (Barker; Feil).
All the genocides that have occurred throughout history have had their own unique characteristics, and the causes will always be far more complicated than can be portrayed on paper. However, a number of social psychological factors have been noted to combine to create the ‘perfect storm’ that leads to genocide. It can only be hoped, that through an understanding of these variables genocide can be prevented.
References
Barker, G. (2004). Ghosts of Rwanda [video recording]. Public Broadcasting Services (PBS), Frontline. Viewed August 6, 2007.
Baumeister, R. F. & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth
Feil, S. R. (1998). Preventing genocide: How the early use of force might have succeeded in Rwanda. A report on the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Retrieved August 23, 2007, from http://www.wilsoncenter.org/susbsites/ccpdc/pubs/rwanda/rwanda.htm
Herf, J. (2006). The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the Holocaust. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
Mamdani, M. (2007). Genocide or civil war? The American Conservative, July 16th 2007, 19 – 22.
McCauley, C., Sitt, C. L., & Segal, M. (1980). Stereotyping: From prejudice to prediction. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 195 – 208.
Peters, R. (2007). Better than genocide: Ethnic cleansing in human affairs. National Review, 59, 35 – 37.
Power, S. (1998). Never Again: The world’s Most Unfulfilled Promise. Frontline Online. Retrieved August 23, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/karadzic/genocide/neveragain.html
Reeves, E. (2007). Genocide without end? The destruction of Darfur. Dissent, Summer 2007, 9 – 13
Rummel, R. J. (1995). Democracy, power, genocide, and mass murder. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39, 3 – 26.
Smith, D. N. (1998). The psychocultural roots of genocide: Legitimacy and crisis in Rwanda. American Psychologist, 53, 743 – 753.
Stansell, C. (2007). ‘I was sick during the genocide.’ Remembering to forget in contemporary Rwanda. Dissent, Spring 2007, 11 – 19.
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). A duplex theory of hate: Development and application to terrorism, massacres and genocide. Review of General Psychology, 7, 299 – 328.
Varvin, S. (2005). Humiliation and the victim identity in conditions of political and violent conflict. The Scandinavian Psychoanalytic Review, 28, 40 – 49.
Weindling, P. (1997). Purity and epidemic danger in German occupied Poland during the First World War Paedagogica Historica, 33, 825 – 832.
World Watch Institute. (2007). Matters of scale: The deadly century. World Watch, 20, 32-32.
Throughout history the world has been horrified by genocides: the Armenian Genocide, the Holocaust and genocides in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur. Following the Holocaust, members of the United Nations signed the Genocide Convention designed to prevent future genocides and the world declared 'never again' (Sternberg, 2003; Power, 1998). Yet it did happen again, more than once. It has been estimated that during the 20th century approximately 188 million people were killed by war, genocide, tyranny and manmade famine (World Watch Institute, 2007). This leads to the questions 'why do genocides occur?' 'What factors contribute to such a situation?' There is not one simple answer, rather a number of factors that can combine to create genocide. Through examining the social psychological variables the world can gain a better understanding of how genocides arise, and hopefully develop methods to prevent future atrocities from ever occurring. The mass killings in Rwanda in 1994 are one example of the complexity of genocide. In 100 days approximately 800 000 people were killed, most of which were the Tutsi minority, although many of the Hutu majority also died (Smith, 1998; Stansell, 2007; Sternberg). That this was allowed to happen, both by the Rwandans themselves, and the international community, attest to the fact that there is no simple answer as to how genocide can occur. The Rwandan genocide was not a simple case of tribal warfare (Smith). A concept map of these variables is presented in Appendix A.
Community Division: Stereotyping and Prejudices
Stereotyping and the forming of prejudices can be viewed as a normal part of learning and human development (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; McCauley, Sitt & Segal, 1980). It doesn’t always lead to violence or war, however in its extreme it is a variable that can contribute to genocide. One of the basic forms of stereotyping and prejudice is ethnic stereotyping which can include ethnocentrism which involves stereotype characterizations that not only describe, but evaluate an ethnic group (McCauley, Sitt & Segal). These evaluations are based on judging groups according to their differences to the initial group’s norms (McCauley, Sitt & Segal). In the case of the Rwandan genocide there was a clear distinction between and prejudice amongst, two tribal groups – the Hutu and Tutsi people (Feil, 1998; Smith, 1998; Stansell, 2007). The mistrust and fear that breeds when stereotyping and prejudices are rampant only serve to widen the gap between ethnic groups and worsen tensions (Mamdami, 2007; Reeves, 2007; Rummel, 1995). Stereotyping can lead to discrimination – an in-group (the group one belongs to) versus out-group (the group others belong to) mentality (Baumeister & Bushman).
A Volatile Situation
Genocides do not occur in peaceful, prosperous nations, rather in those that are troubled with civil war or rebellion and often economic difficulties (Mamdami, 2007; Rummel, 1995). Rummel argues that regimes based on a totalitarian dimension are much more likely to lead to war and genocide than democratic regimes.
Feil (1998) chronicled part of the troubled history between the two Rwandan tribal groups. Rwanda, or Ruanda-Urundi as it was then known, was made a League of Nations Protectorate, governed by Belgium in 1919, and in 1926 Belgium introduced ethnic identification cards that differentiated between the tribal groups. In 1959 the Tutsi king died, resulting in a Hutu rise and the killings of hundreds of Tutsi people. In 1962 Ruanda-Urundi became Rwanda as it gained its independence and the Hutu majority government came to power, bringing about more Tutsi killings. In 1963 and 1967 the killings continued and in 1973 the Tutsi people were restricted to 9% of available public service jobs whilst also being purged from universities and other institutes. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) was formed in 1986 and in 1989 world market coffee prices collapsed, destroying the Rwandan economy and increasing tensions between the two groups. In 1990 the RPF invaded Rwanda, were pushed back to the border through French and Zarian assistance and hundreds of Tutsi civilians were killed as reprisal for the attack. From 1990 to 1994 various cease-fire agreements were established and continuously broken. The Rwandan army began equipping and training militias and paramilitary organisations during 1990 and 1991. In 1992 Egypt and South Africa signed $6 million and $5.9 million agreements respectively, with the Rwandan Government Forces (RGF) for small arms, mortars, rockets, grenades and mines. In 1993 UN peacekeeping forces were approved and deployed but in October of the same year a coup d’etat occurred causing hundreds of refugees to flee the country. On April 6, 1994 the Rwandan and Brundi presidents were assassinated and the country descended into chaos.
Social Influence and Deindividuation
Social influence can play a large role in genocide through pressure for individuals to conform to a larger group’s beliefs and actions, even to the extent that civilians will participate in killings themselves (Feil, 1998; Smith, 1998; Sternberg, 2003). Social influence has a historical perspective in that humans have been more likely to survive if they were part of a group rather than on their own (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Normative influence can be seen in genocide when individuals conform not only to be accepted as part of a group but to avoid reprisals and negative consequences for themselves (Reeves, 2007; Smith; Sternberg). During the Rwandan genocide Hutu extremist not only killed Tutsi people, but also moderate Hutu who were, wether accurately or not, portrayed as associating and collaborating with the Tutsi, or who failed to clearly align themselves with the majority (Sternberg; Feil).
Sternberg (2003) lists strategies that governments and military groups use to achieve their means during a genocide: intensive, extensive propaganda – often through false stories to generate hatred; infusion of hatred and its resultants as an integral and necessary part of societal mores – the normalising of feelings of hatred; emphasis on indoctrination of youngsters in school and through extracurricular groups; the importance of obeying orders; diffusion of responsibility – no one is left feeling solely responsible, rather they are small parts of a larger machine; calls to and rewards for action; threats and punishment for non-compliance; public examples of compliance and non-compliance; system of informers to weed out fifth-columnists – usually secret police; and the creation of an authoritarian cult of a leader.
The diffusion of responsibility is linked to deindividuation – individuals lose their sense of individuality and become part of the larger group – they develop the mob mentality (Baumeister & Bushman)
Communication: Propaganda and Rationalisation
Much of this social influence can occur through persuasion – propaganda and the use of fear – minority groups are demonised and an ‘us or them’ style message is broadcast – one’s group must destroy their enemies before they are destroyed themselves (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; Feil, 1998; Reeves, 2007). In Rwanda, radio broadcasts fuelled hatred and the Tutsi were often referred to as cockroaches and vipers (Feil; Smith, 1998). Hutus were instructed to ‘fill the rivers of the country with the Tutsi dead’ (Feil, p5) and it was claimed that Tutsis were planning on slaughtering innocent Hutu (Smith). In Germany, during the Holocaust the Jews were demonised through movies, broadcasts, books and posters as being greedy, cunning and dangerous (Herf, 2006; Varvin, 2005; Weindling, 1997). Through propaganda individuals are taught that hatred towards the target group is justified and that they in fact have a responsibility to act on these feelings (Sternberg, 2003).
Aggression
Genocide involves both hostile, or impulsive, aggression and instrumental, or premeditated aggression (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). As well as active aggression – direct behaviour that harms others – passive aggression can also be involved, where people are harmed through the lack of behaviour (Baumeister & Bushman). Genocide often not only involves the torture and murder of people but also the withholding of vital supplies including food, water, medication, shelter and basic safety and protection (Mamdami, 2007; Reeves, 2007; Sternberg, 2003). Whether governments are openly undertaking the genocide killings or not, the militias are usually state-sponsored, with both financial, manpower and weapons assistance being provided (Mamdami; Reeves; Rummel, 1995)
Peters (2007) argues that genocide is ‘essentially Darwinian’ in that throughout history tribes or groups have sought to eliminate other groups for their own safety – survival of the fittest.
International Intervention
International intervention can be examined from two different angles in regards to genocide. There is the intervention that sustains regimes and militia through support – financial, politically or through the supply of manpower, weapons or training. China has been one of the Darfur government’s main suppliers of weapons for the last ten years (Reeves, 2007). Reeves also argues that China has indicated that they will prevent effective action by the United Nations. On the other hand, there is the lack of international intervention that fails to prevent genocide from occurring. This lack of intervention can arise for different reasons. Nations may be indifferent in regards to the plight of a group of people other than their own citizens if it does not affect them. President Clinton stated that the United States of America would not intervene in the Rwandan crisis as it did not pose a threat to American interests (Barker, 2004). Not only did the USA not intervene adequately in the genocide, they withdrew UN Peacekeeping troops who were already stationed in Rwanda. Nations may want to intervene but be restricted by bureaucratic obstacles. There are strict laws that are designed to regulate international intervention both by individual countries and groups such as the United Nations (Barker; Feil, 1998; Reeves). This was highlighted in Rwanda with Major General Dallaire unable to intervene in the situation (Barker; Feil).
All the genocides that have occurred throughout history have had their own unique characteristics, and the causes will always be far more complicated than can be portrayed on paper. However, a number of social psychological factors have been noted to combine to create the ‘perfect storm’ that leads to genocide. It can only be hoped, that through an understanding of these variables genocide can be prevented.
References
Barker, G. (2004). Ghosts of Rwanda [video recording]. Public Broadcasting Services (PBS), Frontline. Viewed August 6, 2007.
Baumeister, R. F. & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth
Feil, S. R. (1998). Preventing genocide: How the early use of force might have succeeded in Rwanda. A report on the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Retrieved August 23, 2007, from http://www.wilsoncenter.org/susbsites/ccpdc/pubs/rwanda/rwanda.htm
Herf, J. (2006). The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the Holocaust. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
Mamdani, M. (2007). Genocide or civil war? The American Conservative, July 16th 2007, 19 – 22.
McCauley, C., Sitt, C. L., & Segal, M. (1980). Stereotyping: From prejudice to prediction. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 195 – 208.
Peters, R. (2007). Better than genocide: Ethnic cleansing in human affairs. National Review, 59, 35 – 37.
Power, S. (1998). Never Again: The world’s Most Unfulfilled Promise. Frontline Online. Retrieved August 23, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/karadzic/genocide/neveragain.html
Reeves, E. (2007). Genocide without end? The destruction of Darfur. Dissent, Summer 2007, 9 – 13
Rummel, R. J. (1995). Democracy, power, genocide, and mass murder. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39, 3 – 26.
Smith, D. N. (1998). The psychocultural roots of genocide: Legitimacy and crisis in Rwanda. American Psychologist, 53, 743 – 753.
Stansell, C. (2007). ‘I was sick during the genocide.’ Remembering to forget in contemporary Rwanda. Dissent, Spring 2007, 11 – 19.
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). A duplex theory of hate: Development and application to terrorism, massacres and genocide. Review of General Psychology, 7, 299 – 328.
Varvin, S. (2005). Humiliation and the victim identity in conditions of political and violent conflict. The Scandinavian Psychoanalytic Review, 28, 40 – 49.
Weindling, P. (1997). Purity and epidemic danger in German occupied Poland during the First World War Paedagogica Historica, 33, 825 – 832.
World Watch Institute. (2007). Matters of scale: The deadly century. World Watch, 20, 32-32.
Appendix A - Concept Map
Appendix B - Self Evaluation
Genocide
I'm also interested in doing my first blog on the Genocide theme. It's always been something that has interested me, and it was renewed earlier this year when Greenday released a cover of John Lennon's Working Class Hero to raise awareness for the genocide in Darfur (This is a link to the video clip if anyone wants to watch it http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPPgeDhGzKY) It's a great song and very moving with Darfur survivors talking about their experiences and what they want for their country throughout the song.
I just don't understand how things like this can continue to happen. After the Holocaust the world seemed so horrified and determined never to let such an atrocity occur again, but it has happened again, and more than once. I find it hard to believe that in this day and age, when, thanks to technology something happens on the other side of the world and it's on our tv and computer screens within half an hour, that society can continue to stand by and let these things happen, ignorance can't be an excuse anymore. It will definitely be interesting to look into it more and find out what components can contribute to creating something so horrible - I really don't have any understanding of what makes it possible for one human to do something so terrible to another, or why people can comfortably stand aside and knowingly allow genocide to occur.
I just don't understand how things like this can continue to happen. After the Holocaust the world seemed so horrified and determined never to let such an atrocity occur again, but it has happened again, and more than once. I find it hard to believe that in this day and age, when, thanks to technology something happens on the other side of the world and it's on our tv and computer screens within half an hour, that society can continue to stand by and let these things happen, ignorance can't be an excuse anymore. It will definitely be interesting to look into it more and find out what components can contribute to creating something so horrible - I really don't have any understanding of what makes it possible for one human to do something so terrible to another, or why people can comfortably stand aside and knowingly allow genocide to occur.
Monday, July 23, 2007
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